Patient Education Plan Essay

This is a Patient Education Plan for a patient suffering from a gastrointestinal disease called liver cirrhosis. Gastrointestinal infection is said to be any communicable disease which involves the gastrointestinal tract making it as its portal of entry of affecting it by any means. The organisms which produce toxins cause this kind of infectious intestinal disease all by themselves. Thus, cirrhosis is an irreversible type of liver damage described as a dense scarring (fibrosis) of the hepatic tissues. In the United States, the major causes are excessive alcohol consumption and viral Hepatitis C. Other known causes include chronic hepatitis B and D, iron overload, autoimmune/inherited diseases, chronic bile duct obstruction, and drugs, toxins and other infections as well. The patient in this specific case is a 38-year old male who has been working as a gardener and janitor in one of the prestigious learning institutions in the United States. Even if he is only 38, he looks like he is 50 years old already. Let us call him â€Å"Dave† for purposes of confidentiality and patient protection. Dave is the breadwinner of a family of five. He has three children and his wife is working as a clerk for an agency within the neighborhood. Being a gardener and a janitor at the same time, he is often on duty the whole day under the intense heat of the sun with little rest or no rest at all. He also works daily without any rest days and frequently engages in over time to get extra pay to sustain life’s needs. Patient 2 Because of too much toiling done, Dave believes he deserves to relax after work so he always drinks alcohol to relax his muscles. This has become a regular habit of his for the past 15 years. It all began as a relaxing strategy until it has become a daily habit. Drinking has become his idea of socialization. Though he knows the dilemmas of habitual drinking, he is finding a hard time to get himself to minimize or stop drinking. Even at work, he keeps a bottle secretly kept so he can take sips or gulps from time to time while keeping himself busy. It has become as sort-of water to him. It should be noted that before Dave became an alcoholic, he has a large frame weighing 180 lbs. and standing at 5 feet and 11 inches. After he became an alcoholic, he now weighs only 150 lbs. which is way below his ideal weight. His skin wrinkled and darkened but with tinges of yellowish areas all throughout his body. His body bulged since his liver has inflamed already and edema has occurred inside him. Physically, one will know right then that he is sick. As to his family history, it is important to be aware that his father was also a habitual drinker but lucky enough for him that he did not develop liver cirrhosis. However, two brothers of his father had liver cirrhosis and one of them died of the disease. Therefore, said gastrointestinal disease runs in their family. Dave had a chance of going to college but because of attitude problems he fell short and finished only high school. So he ended up with a menial job as a school gardener and janitor. Based on his scholastic records, he was a good student. He gained good grades, not academically rewarding but decent enough to pass college scholarships. His alleged stubborn traits had won him over. Patient 3 The patient, Dave, preferred to engage in one-to-one learning technique rather than learning by group method. Dave has several sensitive, private and critical issues which he opts to share only with the learning provider, in this case, the nurse. In fact, Dave did not even approved of the idea of â€Å"learning† at first because of his stubbornness. He wants to do things alone but with thorough explanation, he was able to understand his condition little by little and began cooperating to work on his sick state. So what is liver cirrhosis all about? The disease has been defined earlier as a form of liver damage which affects the gastrointestinal system. Among the early signs include weakness/fatigue, anorexia, stomatitis, tea-colored urine, clay-colored stool, amenorrhea, decreased sexual urge, loss of pubic and axilla hair, hepatomegaly, jaundice, and pruritus or urticaria. Late signs involve hematological, endocrine, GIT and neurological changes. Further, it can complicate into more serious illnesses such as edema and ascites (fluid buildup), bruising and bleeding, jaundice, itching, gallstones, toxins in the blood or brain leading to impaired brain function, kidney failure, sensitivity to medication, portal hypertension, varices, insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes, liver cancer and problems with other organs. In Dave’s case, it began as a severe case of alcoholism combined with malnutrition which led Laennec’s cirrhosis. This went on to the destruction of hepatic cells or hepatocytes then fibrosis or scarring. Following thereafter is an obstruction of blood flow which increases pressure in the venous and sinusoidal channels then fatty infiltration leading to further fibrosis or scarring. Finally, portal hypertension or high blood pressure (hypertension) in the portal veins and its branches resulted. Patient 4 The prevalence of liver cirrhosis can come across all ages starting at the age of 21 but as the age increases, the rate of scarring progression increases as well. This means that liver cirrhosis cases are more serious with higher age. In Dave’s case, his age may directly affect the severity of his condition. Development of his illness was hastened in that it has been at least 15 years since he became a habitual drinker. It was accumulated through time and in his case, progression is faster compared to others. Because of his liver disease, he cannot work as a gardener and janitor anymore as these are jobs which require much strength and energy. He cannot fulfill his responsibilities at home and his family as well since his health is generally impaired. Further, he cannot participate in community activities too. Patient needs to be educated regarding his nutritional needs. He must monitor his calorie intake and the amounts and kinds of food that he takes to avoid obesity. If possible, he must be given a schedule of diet so he can eat the right kinds of food at the right time and place. Moreover, he must be taught how to improve his depreciating self-esteem due to inability to fulfill his usual duties. He must develop healthy lifestyle practices and new behaviors which will help him regain his confidence. From this moment on, Dave must be able to recover from his health and personality deficiencies. Instead of feeling down and troubled, he must mature by seeing the brighter side of life. The key is acceptance of his present condition and avoid feeling regretful and confused as much as possible. This can be done more competently with the support of the nurse and the significant others who are connected to him.

I Need Help on My Research Paper on the Stroop Effect

Warped Words & The Stroop Effect Table of Content   My science project is on the Stroop Effect. Basically it’s an effect on the human brain; we become confused from the effect. For example if someone was to give you a paper with names of colors and the colors weren’t the same as the word.They told you to read it aloud; you are probably going to have a hard time reading the words because of the effect. John Ridley Stroop is the man who named a color-word task after him, he is a cognitive psychologist. He was showing that you could interfere with attention. Different learners are affected differently; there are visual, auditory, and tactile learners. Usually the visual learners don’t have as much trouble. In 1935 John said that if you test different genders separately, it won’t make a difference.He did four different tests; one was to read the words, tell him the color, read them clock-wise, and read them counter-clockwise. When Ridley tested he only teste d college students, he tested them their 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and before they graduated. Introduction John Ridley Stroop was the first to perform the cognitive task, the Stroop effect. The effect is a study on interference, which makes two signals in your brain go off at the same time. These signals are located in a part of the brain called the anterior cingulate.Anterior cingulate is a part of the brain that regulates blood pressure, reward anticipation, decision-making, empathy, and emotions. The task can affect people’s reading abilities, because the effect interferes with the urge to read the word and not the ink color. Behaviorism can be an example such as â€Å"classroom management†. For example a teacher states that she will reward the class for good behavior while there was a substitute, so she requests a party at the end of the week.This can be used for rewards and punishment, such as the teacher gets a bad report from the substitute and she punishes the class for their behavior (ex. States to the class that they have to write a two paragraph apology letter to the substitute). So called behaviorist feel that teachers can give positive and negative reinforcements (rewards or punishments), so that you can learn. The purpose of the Stroop effect is to seek what interferes with our brain and to see how our brain processes the things we do.

Indigenous Religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Indigenous Religions - Essay Example The Apache dwelled in a desert environment and led a nomadic life. This environment and way of living is difficult and consumes most of the individual’s time in the search for food and water and moving (Hunt). The tribe could not picture an afterlife in an environment similar to their current one; hence they may have chosen to ignore the thought that there could be an afterlife altogether. Living in such an environment, it is easier for a victim to have the view that their survival solely depends on their hard work rather than by the grace of some god or supernatural being. The tough situations that this tribe went through may have driven their lack of acknowledgment of the existence of both a god and an afterlife.Olorun is a higher being, with more powers who assigns tasks or duties to other beings, the Orishas to accomplish. Olorun is thus like the leader whose role is to manage, direct and oversee the progress of any desired work.The messenger tool along a calabash, a chick en and his helper, Oduduwa. All came to the world by descending on a rope. However, Obatala got drunk when they stopped over at a party, and Oduduwa had to carry on with the task at hand. Oduduwa created the earth by sprinkling soil from the calabash over the water. He then released the chicken which ran spreading the earth over until the whole place was filled with land. When Obatala recovered from this drunk state, he was assigned the task of creating the people who would live on the land. That was how the world and the people therein came to be.

Sustainable Practices in the Redevelopment of Canary Wharf Research Paper

Sustainable Practices in the Redevelopment of Canary Wharf - Research Paper Example This paper will highlight the success of the Canary Wharf regeneration or redevelopment based on reviews and analysis through use of sustainable design. As an aspiring architect, carrying out further research on the sustainability of Canary Wharf as a major development project will guide me as well as fellow learners about the importance of sustainability and innovating in design to achieve it. Summary Canary Wharf, a marshland located in the Isle of Dogs in Borough of Tower Hamlets in East London used to be one of the busiest ports in the world since it opened as West India Docks 1802. Its peak was seen from the 1930s when the Port of London carried about 35 million tons of cargo carried by some 55 thousand ships until its peak in 1961 when it handled about 60 million tons of cargo. The decline of the port industry in the 1950s led to its closing in 1970s. It has undertaken several seemingly insurmountable steps and processes since then to replace its glory days. Today, it is a majo r business district of about 1.3 million square metres of offices and retail space (Canary Wharf Group, 2012). Introduction Redevelopment projects are usually major challenges for built environment industries including the designers and architects in a given team. The many factors that redevelopments consider are double against new developments: temporary relocation and displacement of residents and workers in the given area, the disruption of economic, social, and other activities, addressing decay, re-design in consideration of history and the tradition of the people in the given area, funding and other requirements, regulation and governance, and external factors that may be adversely affected by the project. The major obstacles to the redevelopment of the Canary Wharf have been many and its success owed much to the various architectural feats implemented. The design and architectural approaches that need to address the challenges motivated me to research using secondary data (me thodology) and provide a report on the Canary Wharf redevelopment. Discussion Canary Wharf Canary Wharf was became a high concern after the closure of the docks due to its economic impact. Secretary of State for the Environment Peter Walker assigned consultants Travers Morgan to undertake as study of the Thames-side area between London Docks and Barking Creek and the consultants proposed in January 1973 a wide range of options which did not prosper. By 1976, the Docklands Joint Committee or DJC created the London Docklands Strategic Plan or LDSP. Redevelopment, however, can be traced from the creation of the London Docklands Development Corporation by the local Government Planning and Land Act 1980. By 1982, the Isle of the Dogs became an Enterprise Zone that offered tax breaks for developers and investors within a ten-year life cycle. In 1988 when then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher launched the Canary Wharf construction project, it was considered one of the world’s larges t developments. As a major project, Canary Wharf met a lot of challenges including perception that â€Å"Large projects are liable to focus benefits on relatively few individuals, and impose costs over a wide group whose members each have relatively little to lose,† Hall (1981, 15). Redevelopment was led by Canadian developer Paul Reichmann (LDDC, 2009) through the Canadian the Olympia & York- an international property development firm. Tax breaks provided by government to regenerate the rundown areas was provided them and they bought the

Mentorship program Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Mentorship program - Research Paper Example Salami (2010) presented both formal and informal mentorship as manifesting sufficient efficacy in reducing turnovers of nurses, where the former is created through administrative partnership, while the latter is through unstructured mutual understanding. Marginally, the paper adapts formal mentoring program as resolution to high turnovers in The Jackson Veteran Health Administration (JVHA). Several steps are succinctly followed to determine overall reliance and appropriateness of proposed structure. General Steps in Implementation On mentorship program in JVHA, aspects on job satisfaction and social interaction in surgical wards are investigated. Complete project draft requires consensual approval from the Office of Policy and Planning and Office of Human Resource and Administration before proceeding (United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2010). The program is also to obtain financial and administrative support through this department accordingly (Canadian Nurses Association, 2004). As the overall details of the program are smoothly planned out, the plan is ready for pilot implementation. With 1-year mentor program, phases orientation, training, and evaluation are performed. The committee-in-charge prepares for mentoring tasks ahead, with 16 staff nurses as mentors for the whole three work shifts--the number of mentees depend on job vacancies in surgical ward (VA hospital, 2011). In orientation, the program is extensively introduced and functional expectations are mutually established. This lasts for 15-20 weeks, as initial theories and practical nursing applications are reviewed and applied. In training, mentors serve as mentees’ active partners and support them in clinical practice and social interactions. As training proceeds, mentors not only act as role models for mentees to emulate, trusting associations support mentees’ psychological status. Through months of collaborative partnership, mentors gradually wean as educational coach, an d more as referred guide to practice. Periodically, communication patterns from nurses to involved administrative personnel are maintained through constant inspections and written memos. In evaluation, collected data determines whether the program fulfilled the parameters on work satisfaction. Should results meet expected outcomes, the program can proceed as formal policy in JVHA. Resource Identification Availability of resources in clinical areas is part of preparatory task. Block, Claffey, Korow, and McCaffrey (2005) emphasized mentors as prime indicator in a positive working environment. They are instructed on â€Å"phases of a mentor relationship, how to individualize the relationship...deal with any issues the mentor/mentee pair encounters,† while reviewing personal and professional attitudes (Hurst & Koplin-Baucum, 2005). Together with mentors, administrative personnel objectively monitor the progress of the program and existence of conducive functional environment (Al- Hussami, 2008). Resources are composed of materials during information campaigns and episodic post-tests. Written questionnaires are administered, requiring stocks of paper for reproducing copies. Sufficiently, resources for experiential learning are already available in actual settings, from medical equipments to patient charts, as well as conference halls for scheduled meetings. Aside from mentor compensation (minimum of $2/hour) and minimal educational expenditures, projected expenditure is lesser (Almada, Carafoli, Flattery, French, &

Has globalization caused the decline of the states economic importance Essay

Has globalization caused the decline of the states economic importance - Essay Example Additionally, with the increased level of information exchange facilitated by modern forms of communication such as the internet, faxes and world audio-visual news reporting on the digital platform, there has been an increase in the number of cross boarder crimes. However, the loss of state economic importance, especially with the increased international trading, regarded as one of the most adverse effects of globalization to countries. While globalization contributes to the expansion and growth of local economies, exposing the local manufacturers to the rest of the world, the reality is that this has had adverse effects on the sovereignty of certain countries. While discussing the contribution of globalization on the decline of the state’s economic importance, this essay will analyze various ways in which globalization has influenced the global economy since the post-world war II era. Sovereignty, defined as the absolute authority over a certain territory stems from the independence of nations. However, various factors challenge this authority. Among these, include the threat of global terrorism, the climate change, and the powers of international organizations and the influence of the global market. Globalization however, is one of the biggest obstacles to the sovereignty of states. Changing concepts of sovereignty in the recent past agree to the existence of pure state sovereignty and human sovereignty. While the pure state sovereignty seeks to protect the interests of the individual state in the international front, human sovereignty protects the interest of the people within a state, which is paramount, and which the state should guarantee (Margdalena, 1996, p.2). Pure state of sovereignty defines a situation where the state directs its political, economic and social life according to its values, free of external influence, pressure or coercion by other state s. Recent

Anotated Biography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Anotated Biography - Research Paper Example He presents his experiment on the cadets of Israeli Air force flight school to support his argument. The paper gives an experimental insight into the use of simulation in training which will help develop a methodology for research Gonzales and Cathcart give a factual account of how human nature adapts itself to learning. What are the problems encountered and how the brain evolves eventually? This will be very useful in the literature review of our research as it will help find a co-relation between development and simulation/training. Salas explains how PC-based simulation games can be used to exploit the student’s cognitive skills in various real world domains. This work will be helpful in the research as it seeks to provide various ways in which simulation can be used in training teachers. The paper explores the use of PC-Based simulations in air crew coordination. How valid it is, how safe it is and in what way is it better. It provides some valid points which will be useful in the research. In this paper Kincaid draws comparison between the effectiveness of tradition and simulation based training in medicine. He and his colleagues came to this conclusion that simulation and simulators are being used without regard for cognition, design and training. This will be very useful in the critical analysis part of the paper. In this paper Kincaid draws comparison between the effectiveness of tradition and simulation based training in medicine. He and his colleagues came to this conclusion that simulation and simulators are being used without regard for cognition, design and training. This will be very useful in the critical analysis part of the paper. Kohn, Linda, T, Carrigan, , & Janet, (2000). To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health Sys-tem, Committee on Quality of Health Care in America. Retrieved 15th July 2010, from http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9728&page=R1 This is a detailed elaborate

Video game industry in North America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Video game industry in North America - Essay Example Interactive game industry is the other term used in reference to the video game industry as it comprises of thousands of disciplines. The industry developed in the 1970s because of curiosity in which their development shifted from a focused market to a mainstreamed one (Huntemann & Aslinger, 2013). Presently, the video game industry is the most profitable component of the North American economy as it the profits generated from the sale of video game merchandise translates to billions of dollars. Ideally, the advancement in the computer or technology industry draws influence from the video gaming sector as the sector has facilitated significant improvements. For instance, the video game industry influenced the development of sound cards as video game players sought to develop the quality of sound produced but video games. Presently, modern games are a demanding lot as they require advanced applications on personal computers hence influencing the purchase of high quality equipment. The refore, this essay will delve on the video game industry in North America while focusing on the benefits and disadvantages of the same on the economy and the population. History of the Video game industry in North America Video games developed in North America contribute at least thirty percent of the games in the video game market. With this attribute, the industry that started almost forty decades ago has attracted the interest of many researchers in terms of their impact on the reality of the game players. Many researches have had their focus on the contents of the video games or the production aspects of the same. Ideally, the video game industry has a correlation with the development of the software industry in the North American continent, but the two industries took divergent paths as time progressed. However, the establishment of the video game industry is a subject that has dotted lines as it is not clear whether it started with Russell Steven with his colleagues or Baer Ra lph as they developed Magnavox Odyssey and Space wars respectively (Yost, 2005). These two individuals are just among the few that the video game industry cites as the developers of video game consoles in North America. In essence, the game console is the most significant aspect of video games as the device is needful in the running of video games. In definitive terms, the game console is a gaming device that can host numerous games that have different contents and display the contents on a television screen. For instance, the Nintendo 64 was the greatest game console to have hit the video game industry with its release in 1997. On the other hand, video game companies emerged in a period between the 1980s and the 1990s, but the game console sector remained as the principal force in the North American continent. Appendices 1: Comparison between the sales of video game consoles and PC game sales Year Console games Net sales Personal computer Game Sales 2006 231.8 Million pieces 1.2 Mi llion pieces 2007 388.4 Million pieces 5.2 Million pieces 2008 628.5 Million pieces 9.3 Million pieces 2009 602.3 Million pieces 8.8 Million pieces 2010 636 Million pieces 17.6 Million pieces The table asserts that sales in video game console are higher as compared to the sales of PC games making this aspect the object of focus for video game publishers and developers (Tremblay, 2007). Essentially, video game consoles are vital in the maintenance of the existing structures of the North American video game industry. Video game structures in North America As part of the regulations governing this industry, the acquisition of a license from the manufacturer is vital before a game development studio creates a game console. The license is an agreement

Persuasive- Pro Gay Marriage Essay Example for Free

Persuasive- Pro Gay Marriage Essay The legalization of same-sex marriage benefits both LGBT people and America as a nation. As states progressively begin to legalize same-sex marriage, it’s a convenient time to refocus attention on the many advantages associated with the pursuit and achievement of marriage equality. If same-sex marriages are legalized in Texas, not only will it benefit the state but also it will promote equality and non-discrimination in society, provide economic and business opportunities, and strengthen America’s national identity and international reputation. Millions of LGBT people contribute daily to American life in a multitude of ways culturally, socially, financially, politically, vocationally, and spiritually. They are vital to this nation’s continued growth and evolution and the U.S.A. would suffer greatly from the extraction of their many contributions. The legalization of same-sex marriage encourages the human right that everyone deserves. This promotion of equality and non-discrimination is extremely important in reducing homophobia and encouraging a minority group in society that has suffered colossal amounts of disgust that nobody deserves. â€Å"More than 1 in 5 LGBTQ students are physically harassed or assaulted because of their sexual orientation.† Children and young adults are being bullied because of whom they like; many of them cannot deal with this harassment and end up committing suicide. A large part of this nation’s future will be dead if this nonsense doesn’t quit. What more of a reason d o people need to know to see that homophobia is wicked and same-sex marriage should be permitted? It has been proven that same-sex marriage has provided a major economical boost to those states and countries that have embraced marriage equality. The marriage and wedding industry is a significant one. â€Å"Nearly $260 million was injected into the New York City economy in the year following the legalization of same-sex marriage.† Its obvious that money-obsessed geezers that are always looking for a way to get more money out of citizens run the government. They’d be absolutely blind and useless not to acknowledge that authorizing same-sex marriages could be a win-win for both them and gay couples. America has historically presented itself as a global leader in matters of freedom and democracy. It’s unfortunate and ironic, however, that  back on home soil one particular group of people is consistently denied full access to the â€Å"American dream.† The fact that the federal government doesn’t recognize same-sex marriage in a majority of the sta tes has damaged America’s international reputation in relation to LGBT rights. If people would stop discriminating and start embracing this way of life it would play a key role in enhancing America’s international reputation in matters of social justice and in restoring this nation’s integrity as a global leader in the competence of civil and human rights. Also, â€Å"Liberty and justice for all† would finally be believable when same-sex couples are granted equal access to laws across the country. It’s time for things to change and begin to celebrate diversity and difference in our society, rather than continuing to fear or attack it.

Cognition, Memory and Perception Essay Example for Free

Cognition, Memory and Perception Essay Forgetting is the inability of a person to retrieve, recall or recognize information that was stored or still stored in long term memory. (McLeod, S. A. 2008). In terms of short term memory, forgetting is caused by interference between past and new information that most modern accounts that holding on to. In some older models, forgetting is explained using a process of passive deterioration of information. Comparing both accounts, interference seems to have a better explanation of forgetting. Secondly in terms of long term memory, forgetting occurs when one fails to remember and unable to reactivated the memory circuit of given information. In general, forgetting seems to happen in between short term and long term memory. It will occur when information is to be encoded or information is not linked to any memory circuit through interference. (â€Å"What is forgetting in psychology? †, 2008). However, nowadays, there are theories of forgetting in cognitive psychology that are still difficult to test by researches, because one may in fact not forget, but have trouble retrieving information from one’s memory storage. For examples, one forgets about an event such as attending a friend’s birthday party just because the individual were only remembering another event that is more important to him such as a wedding dinner. The examples of the theories of forgetting are encoding failure, decay theory, interference theory, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting and repression. The author of this paper will going to critically asses on the psychological theories on why people forget. According to Freud (1901), the father of the psychoanalytic school, believed that one will forget of what threatens them. For example, experiences that express in abusing, horrifying, hurtful, tense and ego-dissatisfying will pushed back to the unconscious. Based on the opinion of writer on this paper, it is not necessarily that one just forgets about what threatens them but also forgets the information that does not seem important to them. This scenario is similar to the theory of encoding failure whereas the particular information in short term memory that did not manage to encode in the long term memory and the information did not enter to the memory. Besides that, encoding failure also can be result of stress. Based on Yerkes-Dodson Law, too much stress results can cause performance to decline, sometimes sharply if cognitive or nervous breakdown is triggered. A downturn can also be caused by excessive attention to a task such that extra factors that are important get missed. Secondly, the decay theory, this theory suggests that memory traces in the brain will fade over time through lack of use and become inaccessible. Decay theory suggest that forgetting is a psychological process and it is an idea that when a memory has a physical or chemical trace of the experience in the brain when it is laid down. This traces will fade as time passes unless it is reinforced through repeated times of use. For example, when a person meets a new friend, the name of the friend is just like a trace to the brain. But when the person did not manage to meet up with that new friend for a few days, the name of the friend will slowly decay and might not recall it after. However, researchers have not shown that decay theory causes forgetting of something that is stored in the long term memory. In addition, based on the author’s opinion, memory such as driving skills, riding bicycle skills and swimming skills would not decay even though after a period of time, not every memory trace will fade over time. Some studies of the hippocampus have shown a pattern of rapid and then gradual decline of neutral pathways by Anderson (1995).Besides that, there are two types of the interference theory that is, proactive interference and retroactive interference. The definition of the proactive interference is when old information interferes with the new information that cause forgetting. Example of proactive interference theory is when a person who learned many formulas in additional mathematics for a year and learned new sets of formulas for modern mathematics for a month and the person will interfere with the knowledge of additional mathematics while doing modern mathematics. On the other hand, retroactive interference occurs when new information learned interfere with the old information that stored in the memory. Remembering the names of the new students by a lecturer is an example of retroactive interference where the new students name will nterfere with the names that were previously stored. However, researches pointed out that real life interference might not occur so readily. The retrieval failure theory was proposed by (Tulving amp; Thomson 1973). This theory is known as a cue dependent forgetting that explains forgetting as inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues. In order that one person to retrieve information from the long-term memory, they must depend on the type of cue or prompt which they use and this theory explained that why sometimes that one who unable to remember the material that is certain in our memory. For example, a person cannot remember doing his homework until him or her saw the workbook on the table. This proves that the workbook provide the right retrieval cue. According to Freud (1901), the retrieval of the repressed memories is possible only under special circumstances using a few psychoanalytic techniques. On the other hand, there is a tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT) that could help one to retrieve forgotten memories. TOT is an example of how we intentionally search for cues that will prompt the retrieval of a specific memory. For example, a person that forgets their neighbor pet’s name and only remembers the dumbbell which hangs around the neck of the pet. By reading the word dumbbell, TOT assists the person to recall that the neighbor pet’s name was Dumble. Furthermore, the motivated forgetting is a case of retrieval failure referred to Freud, (1901). What it actually meant by motivated forgetting? According to Freud (1901), motivated forgetting is that we are motivated to forget the events or actions that is painful that cannot be solve in the memory by pushing it into the subconscious and actively repressing with it. In other words, these experiences are repressed in the unconscious and unable to retrieve when needed. Besides motivated forgetting causes oneself repression of memory, it is possible that one forgets is based on instructions of others and also known as the intentional forgetting or directed forgetting. Anderson, Baddeley and Eysenck (2009) stated that intentional forgetting also refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget. McNally, Clancy, and Schacter (2001) also stated that loss of autobiographical memories, especially memories for unpleasant or disturbing events has used to explain the intentional forgetting. However, based on the author’s opinion, motivate forgetting on the memories of pain, unpleasant, and disturbing events are unhealthy to one’s body, physically and mentally. What if the capacity of the subconscious has a limit and it cannot continue to repress any more of the memory of negative events, it will causes an unwanted pressure and stress on the individual emotionally and lead to suicide if it reaches the limit. Last but not least, theory of repression, proposed by the psychologist Sigmund Freud. Freud (1901) stated that the unpleasant memories such as sexual abuse, bullying, torture or any traumatic experience which undergoes the psychological process which automatically and unconsciously prevents emotionally distressing memories from coming into our conscious awareness. In the event or experience in the present such as watching a video, hypnosis or hearing music may triggered the repressed memories back into conscious awareness. However, he stated that, repressed memories cannot deliberately bring back unless it was triggered. The memory researches pointed out that the retrieval memories come back into awareness through suggestion by the patient’s therapist in fact are false memories. In the nutshell, all the theories above that have discussed which are the encoding failure, decay theory, interference theory, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting and repression. Overview of this research, readers can determine that every theories of forgetting have relation between one another and it is all related to the short-term memory and long-term memory. If the short-term memory does not exist, there is no long-term memory. In the author’s point of view, some of the theories that have discussed above are too narrow in scope and did not manage to cover all the factors such as emotion of a person that will lead to forgetting. In the author’s opinion, every psychologist that is doing on the same research should investigate and plan the experiments together so that all the psychologists able to brainstorm on their findings and share their thoughts together in order to improve their theories. Besides that, I believe that, all the human being does not want to repress all those negatives events that had ever happened in their lives into their subconscious mind. This is because after repressing or suppressing those memories into the subconscious mind, it would not provide safety precautions in terms of physically and mentally to everyone. What if one day, one person those who suffer from sexual abuse and torture since childhood and triggered that memory back and do the same thing to others. This will lead to even more people suffers.

Piagets Theory Of Child Development

Piagets Theory Of Child Development ‘Grand development theory: outline the strengths and weaknesses of Piagets theory of child development. Do you think that Piaget s theories still have an important place in modern psychology?’ Introduction In the 20s century, the first main theory of child development was established by Jean Piaget (Miller, 2011:649). Piaget’s contribution (1986-1980) has had great impacts on progress developmental psychology, particularly in the area of child and cognitive development. He also used a scientific method to understand developmental cognition among infancy and childhood (Oates Grayson, 2004: 14). Piaget tried to know the root of intelligence in infancy and the change of their knowledge which occur over the period of time. He thought children pass a series of cognitive phases in the same order (Bernstein Roy, 2008: 464). Although Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has criticized due to defect in some respects (Lourenco Machado, 1996), his notions about children and their cognitive development have significant effected on developmental psychology (Bernstein Roy, 2008: 464). This assignment firstly will demonstrate Piaget’s contribution in the field of child de velopment .it then it shows the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory about cognitive development among children. And it then describe Piaget’s theory and modern psychology. Piaget Contribution Piaget is a professional expert in the field of cognitive development. Beilin (1992: 191, cited in Shaffer Kipp, 2010: 278) put it, â€Å"assessing the impact of Piaget on developmental psychology is like assessing the impact of Shakespeare on English literature or Aristotle on philosophy—impossible†. Furthermore, another famous expert in the field of child development his name is Flavall also stated that â€Å"many of Piaget’s contributions have become so much a part of the way we view cognitive development nowadays that they are virtually invisible† (Flavell, 1996: 202, cited in Kail, 2012: 179). In terms of children’s thinking, Piaget revealed that children’s thinking is not as same as adults. Piaget emphasized that children require obtaining experience to learn. Then they can create their own plan and vary them in necessary time. This method to teach children was very diverse if comparing with other approach which had before him. Hence Piaget has a substantial effect on the education of children (Westman and Costello, 2011: 16). With respects of applying Piaget’s theory to educate children, the Piaget’s approach of education has had a profound effect on education process. Piaget’s developmental theory has had three major implications for educating children. Firstly, in terms of â€Å"readiness†, children have to be taught according to their ability particularly the teaching of science and mathematics. In addition, the tasks which are set by the teachers have to be appropriate to the level of children’s perception and cognition. Secondly, as regards curriculum, teaching recourses such as science and math should involve concrete materials which students can use them skillfully. Thirdly, children learn from self-activity and actions and teachers must understand every child’s requirements in order to build knowledge in terms of their needs (Gross, 2010: 538). Piaget transformed cognition into developmental science. Piaget proved that cognition is the main part of the science of cognitive development. He also demonstrated why the processes of cognition are the central of development psychology and offered some approaches which can be employed to test them (Kail, 2012: 179). Piaget provided the development psychology with a completely new notion about children’s nature, and the cognition of child development how and when occurs. Hence the role of Piaget in the development of cognition was as similar as Chomskys influence on the development of language (Flavell, 1996: 200). Piaget exposed the stages of cognitive development among children. Feldman (2013: 352) state that â€Å"No theory of cognitive development has had more impact than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget† .He thought that children pass a series of four phases in unchangeable order. Piaget preserved that the cognitive stages vary not merely in the quantity of knowledge at each phases, however, in the quality of understanding and information as well (Feldman, 2013: 352). the weaknesses of Piaget theory Despite all of these Piaget’s contribution, his theory about the child development has been criticized by some psychologists in order to reveal some weaknesses. His theory has some shortcomings which including underestimate and overestimate child’s capacity, ignoring culture influence on child development and methodological limitations. Piaget underestimated and overestimated children capability. Underestimate of infancy and childhood’s competence and overestimate the capability of adolescents could be considered as a major defect in Piaget’s theory. The contemporary science of child development has exposed that toddlers and infants have capability more than Piaget’s expectation (Kail, 2012:180). Some skilled cognition among children appears earlier than Piaget realized and others emerge latter (Carpenter, 2011, cited in Santrock, 2011:50). As an example, evidences have been revealed that object performance in children start to develop 3 to 4 months earlier than he believed (Baillargeon, 2002; Wang, Baillargeon, Paterson, 2005, cited in Weiten, 2010: 456). This means infants have greater ability to understand objects than Piaget thought (Kail, 2012:181). However, some adolescent’s competence was overestimated by Piaget’s cognitive theory (Cacioppo and Freberg, 2013: 531). According to Piaget children in formal operation stage can understand the principles of math (Pastorino and Doyle-Portillo, 2013: 340). Nevertheless, Cacioppo and Freberg (2013: 531) state that Piaget was very wrong because of the level of children’s thinking is not fully mature, hence they cannot think logically. Piaget ignored cultural influence on cognitive development Another criticism which has directed Piaget’s theory is that the impact of social environment and cultural factors in child’s cognitive development were paid small attention by Piaget (Costello Westman, 2001:138). Cultural and life pattern has more effect than Piaget thought on cognitive development. As an example, nomadic tribe does not interest in counting objects. Thus nomadic children learn conservancy of figures later than in Western culture (Franzoi, 2011:237). Another illustration of this the children in Hausa tribe in Nigeria do not know about conservation principles, because families in this tribe send their children to the school in early age (Fahrmeier, 1978, cited in Martin, Carlson and Buskist, 1997: 513). Although the impact of cultural factors on the rate of cognitive development was admitted by Piaget, the contemporary science of developmental psychology has found that culture has a great role in child’s thinking as well (Gauvain, 2001; Rogoff, 1 998, 2003, cited in Shaffer Kipp: 280). At the same time Piaget neglected social interaction among individuals in cognitive development (Shaffer Kipp: 280). Interaction with peers, family members even whit teachers led to develop children understands. Piaget sometimes mentioned the influence of social environment and he did not ignore it at all (Kail, 2012:181). He believed that social interaction assists children to avoid egocentric tendency. However he did not find how social interaction assists child’s development (Fleming, 2004: 30) Methodological and approach barriers. Piaget’s theory has been criticized not only with regard to problem of estimate children ability but his theory has some problem in terms of the principles of developmental science. In terms of observe his infants; Piaget has not observed a great variety of children, Instead of Piaget examines 30 or 40 children in his research to find a respectable result he studied his own children at the â€Å"Rousseau Institute†. This means he has a small case study, the probability of biases in interpretable behavior of his own children, the difficulty in controlling environment and making his observation only in the laboratory (Miller, 2012, 85) Piaget usually utilized the clinical method. Employing clinical method to observe children might lead to give different questions to different children. However, uniform materials, instructions and measures of answer questions are the spine of experimental psychology (Miller, 2012, 85). Modern psychologists have been frustrated by Piaget’s reports of his experiment. Piaget did not mention bout the level of social economy of children, the number of participants, participant’s race and even he did not give us enough detail about his testing procedures as well. It might be difficult to decide whether Piaget is describing to children hypothetically or he really tested children. Piaget was poor in analyze of statistics. In his words, â€Å"Psychologists over-generalized their methods and arrived at delightful trivialities, particularly when an army of scientists translated their results into mathematical terms† (1918, p. 63). Furthermore, â€Å"acute observation, especially when made by [a good observer] . . . , surpasses all statistics† (1936/1952, p. 72, cited in Miller, 2012, 85-86). Statistical summaries were not given by Piaget about his discovery, he supplied a specimen protocols which are lengthy interpreted by Piaget. Therefore he read s frequently cannot understand Piaget’s themes easily (Miller, 2012, 85-86). Piaget and modern psychology Despite all of these shortcomings, Piaget has remained as a substantial character in the realm of cognitive psychology (Lourenco Machado, 1996, cite in Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011: 375). Nowadays, based on Piaget’s theory the science of cognitive development has been re-conceptualized by psychologists (Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011: 375). Moreover, according to Fleming (2004: 31) the influence of Piaget’s theories on cognitive development among children will probably continue for a long time. Piagets Theory of Child Development Piagets Theory of Child Development The first two years are very important in a child development. In this essay you will find the key concepts and theories of cognitive, social and emotional development in infancy. I am going to explain what cognitive development is and focus on cognitive theory of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and acquisition of language and perception. This essay will tell you what are the most common emotions of infants and what can causes it. Also, it will introduce you to psychoanalytical theories of a child development by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson and the differences between it. What is more, I will explain what attachment is and the importance of it, also, explain Bowlbys attachment theory and how attachment develops during the first two years. In this essay I will explain why social workers need to know child development theories and why they may come in contact with the infant and his or her family. Infancy. Infancy is the period of human development from birth to around 18 24 months. The period of infancy is loosely defined and depends on social convention. Infants depend on more mature caregivers to meet all their needs, who support their development (Davies, 2008). One of the main issues of development is nature versus nurture. The supporters of nature emphasize the importance of genes and biology. According to them, all normal children achieve the same development milestones at similar times and differences among children occur due to differences in genetic makeups. Meanwhile, nurture supporters emphasize environment-conditions and events outside the person (Sigelman, 1999). Cognitive development Cognitive theories emphasize mental aspects of development, for example logic and memory. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential theorists of development psychology. He had been studying childrens development of logical thinking for six decades (Boyd, Bee, 2009). The success of Piaget theory is largely due to accurate observations of his children at home (Slee, 2002). According to Piaget the childs ability to think, reason and understand the world is rapidly growing during the first two years of life. He or she is an active participant in growth process (Slee, 2002). Piaget claims that key elements in cognitive development are assimilation and accommodation. When a child incorporates new information into existing patterns of thought and behaviour assimilation occurs. Meanwhile, during accommodation the infant has to change an existing structure in order to deal with new information (Slee, 2002). Piaget believed that the process of learning is intrinsically satisfying to the infant. Moreover, the first 18 months of life represent enormous gains in the infants intellectual development. (Slee, 2002, p.143) Piaget divided cognitive development into four major periods. The period from birth to age 2 is called sensorimotor stage (Sigelman, 1999). Throughout this stage the infant is actively discovering about the world and his or her effects upon it. (Durkin, 1995) In this period intelligence is manifested in action (Mussen, Conger, Kagan, Huston, 1990). It is divided into 6 substages (Slee, 2002). During substage 1(0-1 months) reflexes, for example sucking, are being used in order to assimilate their experience of the world. During first month reflex, such as sucking, is modified and becomes more efficient. But not all reflexes change in this substage (Slee, 2002). According to Piaget in substage 2 (1-4 months), the key element is a repetition of movements, or primary circulation reactions. It involves only infants own body, for instance, infant finds having a thumb in mouth a pleasant sensation and if the thumb falls out, he or she will try to put it back (Slee, 2002). In substage 3 (4-8 months) the repetition of primary circular reactions acts on the world outside the childs body (Slee, 2002). By repeating some actions the infant tries to trigger reactions outside his or her body (Boyd, Bee, 2009). In substage 4 (8-12 months) the infant becomes capable of keeping a goal in mind and achieving it. The baby is able to combine two schemes in order to achieve his or her goal, for example moving aside a pillow in order to reach a toy (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Substage 5 (12-18 months) is a stage of tertiary circular reactions during which the infant is actively seeking novelty and the child experiments. (Slee, 2002) It is the time when the infant tries out new ways of playing and manipulating objects (Boyd, Bee, 2009). In the final substage 6 (18-24 months) the infant becomes able to manipulate mental symbols, such as words and images. Symbols start to represent objects or events (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Many studies have shown that Piaget have underestimated the cognitive capacity of children. Researchers discovered that infants better understand object movements, than Piaget suggested and imitation appears at younger age (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Language. Piaget did not focus much on the development of language. Even though, infants make a huge progress, starting with babbling to the earliest ability to understand the meaning of individual words, to first word at around 12 months of age (Wilson, et al., 2008). At the beginning infants can understand many more words than they can use in their own speech. The infant develops a wide range of communicative gestures, before using words (Lefrancois, 1999). At this time infants tend to learn words slowly, but from 16 months to the end of second year they start acquiring words much faster. By 24 months infants are able to use 300 words (Wilson, et al., 2008). There is also known that children begin to talk sooner, develop larger vocabularies if their parents talk to them often, read to them regularly and use wide range of words (Boyd, Bee, 2009). In general language acquisition follows a regular sequence, although, there are wide variations in the patters and speed of language. Some children start using individual words at 8 months, meanwhile others not until 18 months (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Speech delays can be an early indicator of the childs atypical development. (Wilson, et al., 2008) Perception. With the help of the various sensory modalities, like sight, hearing, taste and smell, infants pay attention to the changes around them (Slee, 2002). Early perceptual learning depends on experiences (Boyd, Bee, 2009). During first 2 months, babies are looking for meaningful patterns. Sharp-dark light contrast, which normally signals the edge of some object, stops babies scanning the world around them. Between 2 and 3months the infant starts paying attention to what the object is, rather than where the object is (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Babies are able to differentiate sound to an impressive degree. They can discriminate the loudness and pitch of sound. DeCasper and Fifer found that infant is capable to recognise mothers voice from another female voice, but not fathers voice from another male voice. Soon after birth infants are able to identify the source of odour and react to it, by turning towards or away from it. Infants show preference for sweet substances (Slee, 2002). Emotions Crying, smiling and fear reactions are the most popular emotions of the infant, according to the most of research .Gianino and Tronick argued that infants are capable to regulate or control their emotions, for example by turning away or sucking a thumb (Lefrancois, 1999). Infant crying, explain Pinyerd, is one the infants main ways of communicating both physiological and psychological distress. However, not all infant cries are cries of pain, hunger or distress. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 161). Crying because of hunger or pain can be eliminated; meanwhile, unidentifiable cry is harder to stop. Constant crying can be highly annoying for parents and siblings (Lefrancois, 1999). Smiling and laughing is a core part of parent-child interaction. First smile can appear as early as two to twelve hours after birth, even though it is not a social smile, but rather a reflex. Social smile is a response to auditory and visual stimuli, for example response to a caregivers face. From 3  ½ month the infant is able to produce selective social smile. The infants react to social stimuli that are familiar (Lefrancois, 1999). According to Watson and Rayner, loud noises and sudden loss of support can cause the infants fear. To paraphrase Hebb, fear can occur then the infant develops certain expectations about the world and those expectations are violated (Lefrancois, 1999). Psychoanalytical theories Psychoanalytic theorists believe that development change happens because of internal drives and emotions influence behaviour. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 27) According to this theory infants get more pleasure from mouthing objects than from manipulating them with other parts of their body (Boyd, Bee, 2009). According to Freuds personality development theory, at birth infants were equipped with biological instincts that demanded satisfaction, which was driven by self-presentation and procreation (Slee, 2002). Freud argued that there are three different levels of personality in human development: id, ego and superego (Lefrancois, 1999). The oral stage (0-1  ½ years). In Freuds theory, during the first year of life the psychic energy of the infant is focused on the mouth. Events surrounding the reduction of physic tension and attaining pleasure relate primarily to acts of feeding, such as sucking on a nipple or bottle. (Slee, 2002, p. 161) Freud argued that infant becomes focused on the person providing gratification and reducing the level of psychic tension. According to Freud, attachment is developing between the child and the person. He argued that the amount of gratification is very important in progressing to the next stage. To little or too much of gratification, would end in fixation at the oral stage. To paraphrase Freud it could as adults derive and undue amount of pleasure from mouth. Under gratification as adults may lead to depression, meanwhile, over gratification can cause adults to become excessively dependent upon others (Slee, 2002). During this stage the infants personality mainly consists if id. The infant is driven by an urge to seek immediate satisfaction of impulses. He or she does not know what is possible or impossible, has no sense of reality and conscience (Lefrancois, 1999). Many developmentalists fault Freud for proposing a theory without hardly any evidence to support it. His theory is difficult to test as it requires studying unconscious motivations and unseen id, ego and superego (Sigelman, 1999). On the other hand, his theories helped to alert parents and those working with children about the importance of the first years of life and rich emotional life. It helped Erikson and Bowlby to build on Freuds idea about the significance of the infancy for further development (Slee, 2002) According to Kegan, it is used in clinics and hospital by mental health practitioners (Lefrancois, 1999). Psychosocial approach. Erikson was inspired by Freuds psychoanalytical theories. But there are major differences between Freud and Erikson. Erikson concentrated on the importance of social environment; meanwhile, Freud emphasized the importance of sexuality and psychodynamic conflicts. Opposite to Freud, Erikson was concerned with the healthy personality (Lefrancois, 1999). According to Erikson there are 8 human development stages (Lefrancois, 1999). Erikson like Freud believed that every stage had crucial issue, which had to be dealt with before moving to the next stage (Slee, 2002). Basic trust versus (0-1  ½ years). According to Erikson, during this stage the main issue is the development of a sense of trust. The development of a sense of trust depends on the quality of care rather than quantity the infant receives (Slee, 2002). The infant is initially faced with a conflict between mistrust of a world about which little is known and an inclination to develop a trusting attitude toward that world hence mistrust. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 35) At this point a primary caregiver usually mother, is the most important person. The relationship between caregiver and the infant determines the resolution of the conflict between trust and mistrust and realization that the world is predictable, safe and loving. There is a risk of the infant growing up mistrustful and anxious, if the crucial issue of the stage is not resolved (Lefrancois, 1999). Many people found Eriksons theory more acceptable than Freuds, as it emphasize the interaction of biological and social influences. At the same time, despite providing a useful description of human personality development, it still does not explain how this development comes about (Sigelman, 1999). Attachment An attachment is an emotional bond in which a persons sense of security is bound up in the relationship. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 150) The infant forms a special relationship with caregivers and experiences pleasure and security in their presence, but anxiety and distress when they are gone (Bremner, Fogel, 2007). John Bowlby has developed the most influential theory of parent/child and other relationship attachment. His attachment theory was based on ethological and psychoanalytical theories and modern cognitive psychology (Sigelman, 1999). Bowlby argued that attachment to one or more caregivers is genetically programmed in everyone. According to Bowlby infants behave in a way to ensure the proximity of the caregiver. In order caregivers to respond, infants cry, cling, smile or babble. As a result of this behaviour, attachment gradually develops. This kind of behaviour is directed to a particular person, preferably to a mother, than strangers. Attachment starts to be organized some time during second six months (Slee, 2002). Bowlby divided infants development of attachment in 4 phases (Boyd, Bee, 2009): Nonfocused orienting and signalling phase (birth to 3 months). In order to draw the attention and signal their needs infants cry, smile and make eye contacts (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Focus on one or more figures phase (3to 6 months). Infants concentrate come here signals to people with whom they spend most of the time. Meanwhile, response to unfamiliar people becomes less common (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Secure base behaviour phase (6 to 24 months). The infants start to seek proximity by following and clinging to caregivers, especially when they are anxious, hungry or injured. This behaviour is directed to a primary caregiver and only others, if the primary caregiver is not available or not responding (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Internal model phase (24 months and beyond). Infants learn how an anticipated action might affect the bonds they share with caregivers (Boyd, Bee, 2009). To sum up, according to Bowlby attachment is a part of our evolutionary heritage. With the help of interaction of biological and environmental forces attachment develops during infancy. Later development and quality of relationship is determined by the first attachment relationship between the infant and the caregiver (Sigelman, 1999). Some theorists argue, including Piaget, that the infants relationships with peers are at least as significant as the parent/infant relationship. They argue that those relationships contribute differently to development (Sigelman, 1999). Social work with infants When we talk about social work with infants, the family of the baby is a part of it. Social workers safeguard children and prevent them from suffering. It is crucial for a social worker to know the child development theories in order to undertake assessments, which includes seeing, observing, engaging, talking and doing various activities with the child (OLoughlin, 2008). Social worker may come in contact with the infant and his family if the infant was damaged before birth (for example foetal alcohol syndrome), parents experience mental illness or misuse of alcohol or drugs. Due to issues that parents face, the infant may be harmed as the needs of the child is not met, for example not dressed properly, nappies are not changed, malnutrition, staying in a not safe environment. Due to these circumstances infants cognitive development might be delayed. Depressed mothers can interact with the child less or express anger, which may lead to insecurely attached children (OLoughlin, 2008). Some parents may be too immature or preoccupied by personal problems to give their child enough affection and care. In that case the infant is not able to develop a sense of trust and later, growing autonomy (Herbert, Harper-Dorton, 2002). When working with the infant and family it is not only important to assess the infant, it is also crucial to assess parenting capacity. Parents should be able access and provide for the childs physical needs. Family is responsible for childs safety. The infant should receive secure, stable and affectionate relationships with caregivers. They should promote childs learning and intellectual development through interaction, communication, talking and responding to the child. Parents are responsible for the infants ability to regulate his or her emotions and behaviour (OLoughlin, 2008). Conclusion An understanding of infant development patterns and concepts is necessary for parents and caregivers, as well as all professionals who may come in contact with the child. By knowing them parents can create nurturing, caring and safe environment. It is useful for social workers as well, as they can assess infant and ensure that all their needs are met. Knowing the importance of cognitive development allows caregivers to support it by encouraging exploration, thinking and leaning. By talking to children more often and reading them regularly, caregivers can improve their language skills. Failure to acquire language skills can be indicator that there might be development difficulties or lack of language stimulation. Attachment development is crucial during infancy as well, especially with the primary caregiver, usually mother. It provides healthy emotional and social development and determines later development and quality of relationship. Even though psychoanalytical theory of personal development by Freud is highly criticized, as there is no evidence to test it, it had a major impact on theories about childrens socio-emotional development.

The Role of HBCUs in American Society Essay -- essays research papers

For almost two hundred years, Historically Black Colleges and Universities or HBCUs have played a pivotal role in the education of African-American people, and negro people internationally. These schools have provided the majority of black college graduates at the Graduate and Post-Graduate level; schools such as Hampton University, Morehouse University, Spellman University and Howard University are four universities at the forefront of the advanced education of blacks. For sometime there has been a discussion on whether or not these institutes should remain in existence or if they are just another form of racism. There were also concerning the quality of education provided at these institutions. In my opinion, from the evidence provided in our own world today, HBCUs are very important and significant in the education of black people throughout the nation, and are essential to our society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With regards to the opinion that the existence of HBCUs is in fact, a mellowed form of racism, one must first remember the history behind the origins of HBCUs Many people believe that these institutions have outlived their purpose because we live in a fully integrated society and these institutions stand as hallmarks of segregation. However, by thinking this way is not an analyzing the complete picture because one must bear in mind that HBCUs are old and hallowed institutions of higher learning established in a time when talented, desiring and tenacious Afric...

How Pollution Affects Ecosystems and the Global Climate Essay example

How Pollution Affects Ecosystems and the Global Climate Introduction The main theme of our lesson is how pollution affects ecosystems and the global climate. We aim to teach 4th and 5th grade students about erosion in order for them to gain awareness about the anthropogenic (human-induced) impacts on the environment and global climate change as well as to generate ideas on how they can reduce their own ecological footprints. We feel this is important because the lesson not only educates students, but also motivates them to take action. This lesson will cover many of the Colorado State Academic Standards, not only science-related (Physical and Life Sciences, Science as an Inquiry, and Science in Personal and Social Perspectives), but also those pertaining to geography (Human Systems and Environment and Society) and language arts (Communication Skills and Strategies and Applying Language Skills). There are four essential components to the lesson. The first will serve as a formative assessment of students’ knowledge of pollution by playing a game which asks â€Å"have you ever† questions (for example, â€Å"have you ever heard of global warming?†). This activity is significant in our lesson because it is a hook to get students thinking about the ways they already help and hurt the environment. The next part will introduce students to the concept of an ecosystem, a fundamental unit of the biosphere. We will present the students with a fish inside of a bowl of water and ask whether or not they think this is an ecosystem. We will then add various other living and non-living components and ask the students each time. Afterwards, we will explain the concept of an ecosystem in further detail. The next activity com... ...obal_climate_change>. Cohen, Jordan, and Nick Hopwood. "Greenhouse Gases and Society." University of Michigan. 26 Sept. 2006 . "Ecosystems." Thinkquest. 26 Sept. 2006 . "Greenhouse Gases: Frequently Asked Questions." NOAA Satellite and Information Service. 1 Dec. 2005. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 26 Sept. 2006 . "National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Standards Key." CSI: Climate Status Investigations. The Keystone Center. 26 Sept. 2006 . â€Å"Types of Pollution.† Pollution: A Global Threat to the Environment. 2001. Thinkquest. 27 Sept. 2006

Micro and Macro Management Essay

Macro Management In a simple definition management is the person or persons who control or direct a business or other enterprise. However, management is much larger than just one person or small group of people. Management is also the practice of handling, supervision, direction, and control (www. dictionary. com). It is much larger than one person, or even a small group of people; management is everywhere. We use management in all aspects of our daily lives, whether it is organizing an event, or handling a purchase order. Management must be arranged through multiple levels in order to be successful, beginning with micro management, eventually its way up the ladder to macro management. Micro and macro components are the core make up of every business, each possessing different qualities and characteristics that form the overall building blocks to success. During the training of a new employee, most businesses use the micro-management process to provide the guidance and tools the employee needs to become successful with that business. Micro management is used my supervisors to observe and control the work of their employees. It involves giving employee smaller tasks, while they monitor and assess the work being done (www. dictionary. com). Micro management is often used in the beginning of any business or establishment; basically, you need to start somewhere. In the opening of a new business, guidance will always need to be offered from cooperate offices to ensure a clean transition in the opening process. Once a business is established, management will in turn micro manage their employees; guiding them through the procedures and responsibilities the company requires. Because micro managing involves supervisors overlooking the tasks their employees are undertaking, often times it is thought of as an unenthusiastic tactic. Through the eyes of an associate, micro managing can be de motivating, in turn creating doubt and lack of confidence in the workplace. Even though micro managing is used as an introductory tool, it can be drawn out for a longer duration of time. Distrust, skepticism, and uncertainty are typical feelings an employee may experience if their supervisor is abusing the method of micro managing. The role of manager is an important position of supervision in any organization. The supervisor/manager plays a key function, in the day to day needs of the organization, by finding a balance of work efficiency and managing personnel. This balance becomes even more prevalent when assigning projects or interacting with subordinates. This paper will analyze several aspects or pitfalls, managers could find themselves involved in; and will identify methods used to overcome these situations when supervising subordinates. The position of manager holds many responsibilities in an organization; those responsibilities range from dealing with requests from upper management and servicing employee’s needs, and while seeing to theses responsibilities, the manager still has to supervise the overall direction of his or her department. The multiple tasks a manager must operate within, requires the manager to be flexible and†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦

Jet Blue Essay

There are a few trends that have come into play over the past few years. These different trends range from pricing for the flight to in flight perks. It seems that the perks and other in flight amenities are what may be what makes the difference and will impact any of the airline company’s strategy. Due to major hikes in fuel costs over the past year the airlines have had no other choice but to start passing this expense on to the flyers. The airlines have been trying to come up with competitive ways to differentiate themselves from the competition. Many of the airlines even charge for you check bags also. According to Ethan Davidoff in his article The Cost Behind Checking Bags most airlines only charge $25 for a bag to be checked but there is Southwest Airlines that allows two bags to be checked before charging. With that said in the above mentioned article one can see that you definitely want to travel light because for more than one bag the prices start to increase all the way up to $600. Although Southwest allows two checked bags there are other airlines that allow one free checked bag and most have a weight limit of 50lbs. If one were to travel internationally it may be cheaper to just purchase brand new clothes when you land. Not to mention the convenience of not checking any bags or having to wait to pick it up when you land, etc. So not only have airlines starting charging to check bags but many have stopped providing food, unless the flight is over a given amount of time and you are usually paying for that snack. The above mentioned change in airline airfares has certainly affected many airlines’ strategies. Also as mentioned above it has affected them most specifically in what type of benefits, perks, or amenities that they are willing to offer their flyers. Jet Blue has certainly followed suite and done various things to try to set themselves apart Discuss Jet Blue’s strategic intent. Jet Blue says that their â€Å"objective is optimize our fare mix to increase our average fare and, in certain markets, utilize our network to maximize connecting opportunities while continuing to provide our customers with competitive fares† (jetblue. om SEC filings, p. 31). Like any other company they are looking to cut costs without hurting any of the aspects of their company that sets them apart (i. e. customer service, tv, radio). Jet Blue airline seems to have set its strategy to take advantage of the charges that other airlines charge. They have set themselves apart by offering things on their flights that other airlines either don’t have or charge for. Jet Blue allows the firs t bag to fly free, the second costs $35, and the third costs $75. Although they do not have wireless broadband yet, unlike some other airlines, they do plan to have it in place 2012, and this is so because all of Jet Blue’s aircrafts are being set up for ViaSat satellite wireless which is new and no other airline has. Jet Blue is testing the service for ViaSat and the FAA for testing to be approved for use on airlines. However on the ground in the terminal it does offer free broadband at most airports (http://www. jetblue. com/flying-on-jetblue/onboard/wifi. asp). A strategy held by Jet Blue like that of any business is to improve its bottom line. Jet Blue wants not only to be profitable while reducing costs but they want their customers to be happy and have a good flying experience. Jet Blue has a saying on their site that says â€Å"our standards beat their extras† (http://www. jetblue. com/flying-on-jetblue/). They aim to provide stellar customer service. As a matter of fact according to ehow. com Jet Blue â€Å"was awarded the Conde Nast Traveler ‘Readers’ Choice Award’ for best domestic airline† and â€Å"in 2008, it won J. D. Power and Associates’ ‘Highest Customer Satisfaction Among Low Cost Carriers in North America’ award (ehow. com). More specifically they also state on their website that they have † ranked ‘Highest in Customer Satisfaction Among Low-Cost Carriers in North America’ by J. D. Power and Associates for five years in a row† (http://www. jetblue. com/about/work/). Jet Blue airlines prides itself on its customer service. As noticed from the previous paragraph they have won awards for their customer service. It is no wonder that the company believes in making their customer’s flight experience a pleasant one since the company was started by â€Å"David Neeleman and a number of Southwest Airlines employees in February 1999† (ehow. om). Outstanding customer service is part of their strategy and it is one of their many features that puts them heads above the competition. Discuss Jet Blue’s financial objectives and whether or not the company has been successful in achieving this objective. Before even getting into the financial objectives of the company just reading the SEC report for 2010 really shows proof that Jet Blue has been an extremely successful company over the past ten years. Since they were incorporated in 1998, flight starting in 2000, they have grown from $38. million in net income in 2001 to net income of $97 million in 2010 (jetblue. com). The aforementioned data shows proof of growth and success in lieu of turbulent financial times with rising fuel costs. Fuel costs dramatically rose over the company’s time in business which could have easily put a company under but they continue to strive. Discuss Jet Blue’s strategic elements of cost, organizational culture, and human resource practices and evaluate whether each element provides the organization with a competitive advantage. Jet Blue continues to be competitive with their ticket and baggage pricing. In their 2010 SEC filing they term themselves a â€Å"value airline – based on service, style, and cost† (p. 4). They go on to discuss in the overview how they feel that they continue to provide â€Å"best coach product† and â€Å"reasonably priced optional upgrades† (http://investor. jetblue. com, p. 4). As for Jet Blue’s organizational culture their web site specifically says â€Å"If you’re looking for a job where your career, your passion, and your sense of fun are all important then you’ve landed at the right place. At JetBlue we’ve built an award-winning brand based on delivering value, service, style and comfort to our customers — and to our crewmembers. And, by hiring people who share our vision, we’ve created a place where people enjoy coming to work† (http://www. jetblue. com/about/work/). Jet Blue continues remain un-unionized. Discuss Jet Blue’s strategies for 2008 and beyond and evaluate whether or not Jet Blue will be successful implementing these strategies. Part of their strategy in 2008 has been the same as previous and later years, to remain on time with their flights. They have continued to do well meeting this goal. Jet Blue’s ongoing strategy has been to deliver exceptional customer service and on time direct flights. In 2008 they stated in their SEC filings that they were the â€Å"7th largest passenger carrier† and in their 2010 SEC filings they were the â€Å"6th largest†. Regardless of any strategies that they planned to implement they were obviously successful. The proof lies in their continued recognition by JD Power & Assoc, their net income increases, and their growth to 6th largest passenger carrier in the US. While other airlines are folding, being bought out, or merging Jet Blue is continuing to grow. It is no wonder since they offer outstanding customer service as only part of their strategy and it is one of their many features that puts them heads above the competition. Some of their other features that ranks them high with their customers is the fact that they offer 36 tv channels, XM/Sirius radio, and unlimited snacks and beverages to all passengers at no cost. Kudos to a company for keeping its employees (all non-union) and customers happy.

The Buchanan Report And The Monderman Thesis

The statement is false. This is a tricky question! Although the Buchanan Report and the Monderman thesis do offer visions of how to manage traffic they also offer us two competing visions of social order. The Buchanan Report is underpinned by a social order which privileges the segregation of humans and motors through an array of measures in urban design and the regulation of the conduct of both drivers and pedestrians. This social order emphasises the value of a social environment delivering the conditions for individual mobility and car acquisition as a valued mark of success. The Monderman thesis stresses a social order where involvement and cooperation emerges from an individual capable of negotiating with others a shared use of public space. In this shared space approach, people are not segregated from traffic. You're right. Although Goffman's view of the centrality of interaction is visible in Monderman's approach to negotiating ‘shared space', Chapter 7 argues that, as Foucault shows, social order tends to be specified by experts within particular historical discursive frameworks. Although both Buchanan and Monderman were important in their own right, their ideas were developed and taken up within particular contexts that ‘authorised' their development (made their ideas seems appropriate and fitting to the needs of the time). Foucault claims that expert discourses, established by those with power and authority, are often disputed by competing expert discourses. Buchanan's ideas have dominated for a long period. Monderman's are perhaps gathering force and challenging those of centralised planning and direction. Foucault's view of how the authority to order social life is bound up with scientific knowledge is demonstrated in the discourses and practices of both Buchanan and Monderman.

Conflicting Values between Phaedra and the Nurse Essay

To what extent do the values of the Nurse conflict to with the values of Phaedra in lines 433 to 481?  To a large extent the values of the nurse conflict with those of Phaedra , however both agree that one cannot contradict the will of the gods and at different points both coincide that in the given situation it would be better to die.  At the beginning Phaedra expresses her wish to go hunting and horse riding, suggesting that she desires to be near Hippolytus , yet by doing so she would be break the social convention that dictated women could only leave the house for religious purposes . The nurse knows this, and warns her that to challenge the norm would is madness ‘words that ride on madness’ .However once Phaedra’s secret is revealed it is the Nurse the one who advocates a departure from the social code, while Phaedra strives to uphold her reputation and society’s values. It can be argued that their values differ or alternatively that the Nurse supp orts the same social values, except to a lesser extent and considers that these do not apply to love. Yet, both women share the same values which respect to fate and the divine intervention of gods in mortal’s lives. Phaedra mentions that she was † failing to win victory over Cypris † this indicates she is aware that she cannot overcome her fate or the god’s wishes , so she settles to commit suicide. The Nurse upholding the same value but for a different purpose states ‘ No one can bear the force of Cypris † here she points put that mortals are helpless against the will of the gods and therefore Phaedra should just let things be. With respect to destiny and veneration to gods both uphold the same values however they derive different conclusions from them . Previously the Nurse establishes her admiration for moderation † I praise excess less than moderation†, in contrast Phaedra seems to prefer to have a tendency towards the extremes, first she wishes to go hunting to follow Hippolytus and later to die. Here we see how they have contrasting opinions. Additionally they differ on what should be done with Phaedra’s forbidden love. The Nurse explains that to be in love is nothing extraordinary † you are in love – what is so surprising about that ? † her rhetorical question implies that the situation is not atypical and that it can be easily resolved without resorting to extremes. Furthermore she argues that the curse is not Phaedra’s fault and that she shouldn’t have to die for it. On the contrary Phaedra wishes to repress her feelings deeming them unacceptable. Mean while the Nurse tries to convince her that love is something beautiful and cannot be denies , not even by the gods † Zeus once desired to bed Semele† she implies that Phaedra suppress her feelings but resign herself to them .This goes against every value of virtue and reputation that Phaedra esteems. Phaedra would rather die than be unfaithful, she despises women who †lay claim to virtue † but †dare to commit shameful deeds† . She is concerned about her reputation and the effect this one can have on her house and her children. To this the Nurse responds † mortals should not put too much effort on achieving perfection† implying that she cannot have a perfect reputation. Phaedra expands on the unacceptable behavior of unfaithful women, yet later the Nurse counter argues that men too behave in this way ‘many fathers help their sons in love affairs†. They disagree on the worth of reputation, the Nurse revealing her corrupt moral values, however it can be argued that she wishes to deter her mistress’s suicidal intentions. After all she does show great duty towards her and even declares that she †can no longer exist† after Phaedra reveals her secret. Thus is can be concluded that to a large extent the values of the Nurse conflict with those of Phaedra , however they both coincide that fate nor the will of the gods can be denied. It can be argued that the Nurse’s intention is to help her mistress by diminishing the values she upholds and therefore prevent her suicide.

Analytical Essay of The Castle

The film, ‘The Castle’, directed by Rob Sitch, is an Australian satirical movie about the triumphs of an ordinary working class family. It is a comedy, and foregrounds the importance of family and loyalty, which are considered important in today’s Australian society. Although the audience is positioned to feel sympathy for the Kerrigan family because of their unfortunate situation, their story is told in such a comical manner that the audience can’t help but find it funny. The story is told through the perspective of Darryl Kerrigan’s son, Dale, but so much emphasis is put on Darryl that it is clear that he is the star of the story. The film uses techniques like camera shots, language and the use of narration to develop conflict between a decent, old fashioned suburban family, the Kerrigans and seemingly evil corporation called Airlink. Feature films like ‘The Castle’ are cultural products because they use attitudes, values and stereotypes about what it means to be Australian. In this film, an Australian family living in their beloved home, situated at the end of an airport runway, are faced with a touch challenge as the faceless company Airlink threaten to take away their house, and the houses of their neighbours. Darryl Kerrigan (Michael Caton), the head of the house, is outraged, and hires a pathetic lawyer, Dennis Denuto, to help defend his and his friends’ homes. After a feeble attempt in court to convince the judge that the taking of their houses was, â€Å"against the constitution†, that it was the â€Å"vibe of the thing† their case was turned down, and all hope seemed lost. This caused great sadness within the Kerrigan home, and Darryl had fallen silent. After the Kerrigan family had completely given up, they got a knock at the door from Lawrence Hammill, QC who had met Darryl at the court house and felt empathy for his case. He told Darryl he would defend his case, free of charge, and they set their sights on High Court. This film was set in Melbourne, near the Melbourne Airport. The fact that the Kerrigan household is located so close to the airport positions the audience to think that the house is cheap and invaluable, which is emphasized when the audience is shown the huge power lines situated almost in the Kerrigans’ backyard, as well as the â€Å"dodgy† extensions on the house Darryl has done himself. This being said, Darryl loves his house, and couldn’t bring himself to leave it. ‘The Castle’ puts heavy emphasis on gender construction. The male roles in the movie are stereotypical. Darryl Kerrigan is a family man, which is shown when the audience sees the extensions on the house, and also when he stands up for himself and his family’s rights in court. Darryl is typically always thinking about projects he can begin, which is very stereotypical in today’s Australian society. Dale Kerrigan likes to go fishing with his Dad, which is considered a stereotypical male activity. The males in the film generally do the work and protect for the women of the family. The females are positioned to look as if they need to be taken care of. This film is full of stereotypes. Some of these are challenged, so as to avoid ‘The Castle’ becoming another clichà ©. One stereotype that is challenged is that of a wife; that she should stay at home, while her husband works. This is challenged by Tracey Kerrigan. She has her TAFE certificate of hairdressing, and works as a full time hairdresser. Although this stereotype is challenged by Tracey, it is perpetuated by Sal Kerrigan. She is the stereotypical housewife, and stays at home doing housework, cooking, and craftwork. Another stereotype perpetuated is the typical Lebanese man, represented by Farouk, the Kerrigans’ neighbour. His stereotype consists of talk about bombs and cash being carried at all times. This is perpetuated when Darryl and Farouk are talking about the aeroplanes flying overhead and lowering the value of their houses, and Farouk says, ‘Plane fly overhead, drop value. I dont care. In Beirut, plane fly over, drop bomb. I like these planes’ and also when he mentions, ‘You have friend, I have friend. My friend go to your house, put bomb under your car and blow you to sky!’ Darryl Kerrigan is seen as a stereotype from when he first appears on screen in a midshot, with a hose in his hand, wearing a flannelette shirt and jeans, and looking up at the powerlines situated behind his house. Throughout the movie he is shown as a strong and silent type, as is the stereotypical Australian man. The whole Kerrigan family, for the most part, perpetuate the stereotype of the typical Australian Family. This is shown in their closeness, their loyalty, and their willingness to help each other. Many people and issues are silenced and foregrounded in this film. Airlink and its opinions are silenced, so as to position the audience to view the company as faceless and evil. All the audience sees of Airlink are a few lawyers intent on taking the Kerrigans’ home away from them. In contrast, the Kerrigans opinions are heavily foregrounded. The audience sees all their emotions and arguments as they fight for their precious house, which encourages the viewers to feel empathy. Wayne Kerrigan’s opinions are also silenced. All the audience sees of him which may influence their empathy is the medium long shot of him lying in bed looking up at the photo of his family stuck to the wall. Class and power is shown in different ways throughout the film. Airlink’s power is shown through professional lawyers, in contrast to Dennis Denuto and his incompetence. This contrast is shown when one of Airlink’s lawyers walks into Dennis’ office, while Dennis is struggling with a broken copying machine, swearing, on his knees. Darryl Kerrigan’s power (within his family) is demonstrated in the way that Dale Kerrigan admires him, and focuses his story so much on Darryl instead of telling the story more from his perspective. Darryl is, as Dale says, â€Å"the backbone of the family† and this is shown as Darryl compliments his wife on her cooking each night, and encourages his family to do their best. Different class power discourses are shown throughout the film. The Kerrigans’ class discourse is shown in many ways. Speech is a main part of the discourse. While in High Court, Darryl’s outburst of â€Å"suffer in your jocks!† shows that he doesn’t know how to act in court, as higher class and more educated people would. Again this is shown when he is in court being represented by Dennis Denuto, and yells in excitement when he thinks he’s won the case. Even in the way he speaks, his thick Australian accent, and the way he uses colloquial terms shows the audience his class. Lawrence Hammill’s class is almost immediately known, though it isn’t directly shown when he is first shown in the movie. The audience realizes that he is of higher class than Darryl, because of his language, and by the fact that he doesn’t use colloquial terms. Throughout the film, different camera angles and shots are used to position the audience in different ways. For example, when shown Darryl’s Pool Room, close up shots of items on the walls and in cabinets (Tracy’s TAFE certificate, pictures and trophies) make it obvious to the audience what possessions Darryl treasures most. When Darryl, Dennis and Lawrence are standing in front of the High Court, before they go inside, the camera is angled upwards, in a medium close up, from the ground. This positions the audience to believe the three look ready, powerful and prepared. Another shot that positions the audience is the long shot of Darryl is admiring the power lines behind his house. This makes the power lines look bigger, greater, and more significant. The ideologies foregrounded in this film are those of the underdogs. If the directors were to show the ideologies and opinions of Airlink the audience may not have felt such empathy for the Kerrigans and their neighbours. The Kerrigan’s values are dominant in this film. They value family, loyalty, and justice. This is made clear by the way that the whole family sits down together to eat dinner each night, which is becoming more uncommon in today’s society. It is also made clear by how much time they spend together, talking, telling stories, and going on family holidays. Loyalty is shown by the way that Darryl unites with his neighbours, and cares about how they feel. An example of this is when Darryl tells them they need to get money together to pay to go to court, and how he offers to pay for Jack, because he is old and cannot afford it. Overall, this is a funny classic for all the family to enjoy. The use of foregrounding and silencing of opinions and ideologies positions the audience to feel strong empathy for the Kerrigan family, and encourages them to be on side with the family. The movie is a triumph of human spirit.

Fashion in Pop Culture Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fashion in Pop Culture - Assignment Example The women also wore hip huggers; these were jeans that sat inches below the normal waistline. The jeans were known as dungarees and were usually amazingly tight. The ladies who sported them were fervent to decorate them with studs or embroidery. Some owners even bleached them to vary the color. Skirts and dresses in the ‘60s and ‘70s were in 3 lengths: the mini dress which barely reached the knee; the midi which reached between the ankle and the knee; and the maxi that reached the floor. All teenage girls wanted a mini dress like the one of Marcia Brady (Wertz 17).Young men admired the gleaming white 3-piece Saturday Night Fever suit of John Travolta (Classic70s). It looked fashionable as portrayed in the media. How Media Influenced Fashion in Pop Culture in the ‘80s There is no other fashion decade that has been more influenced by the media, particular movies, and TV than the 1980s. This decade was the MTV generation. Together with the twenty-four hour television broadcasting of music videos, TV shows including Bill Cosby Comedy Show, Miami Vice and Dynasty, and movies such as Pretty in Pink and Flashdance set the tone of fashion. This decade was also a period of decadence, and the mantra â€Å"the bigger, the better† that influenced hairstyles on a grand scale was prominent (Dziemianowicz). In conjunction with the above-mentioned influencers of the 1980s fashion, former Princess Diana’s love of fashion brought in a blood-thirst for designer clothing – Calvin Klein, Donna Karan, Perry Ellis and Nolan Miller became household names. Popular icons, such as Michael Jackson with his beaded glove, Madonna and Material Girl, were also major influencers. Image 7: Designer clothing such as Calvin Klein were well known in the ‘80s (Dziemianowicz). Image 8: Madonna and Princess Diana were major influencers of women and young girls globally in the ‘80s (Mazzulo). Glasses with plastic and large frames were very fashionable for both men and women during the decade. Image 9: Sylvester Stallone with ‘80s glasses that were in fashion (Hanckock) How Media Portrayed Fashion in Pop Culture in the ‘90s In the 1990s, fashion in pop culture started with a mix of preppie, grunge and hip hop. The media through the music industry, Hollywood, and television gr eatly influenced fashion in pop culture during this decade (Horton 23). The industry influences were so potent that ladies went for plastic surgeries for the Baywatch inspired boob job. Image 10: Trendy fashion in pop culture during the ‘90s (Wertz). Image 11: Mini dresses and skirts were popular among